The Intellectual Infrastructures and Networks at Paris in 12th and in early 13th centuries

 Hee-Man Lee

National Institute of Korean History

I. Introduction

II. The enlargement of intellectual infrastructures

   1) the increase of distinguished scholars

   2) the expansion of intellectual space

III. The birth of the nations and the spread of intellectual network

   1) the birth of the nations

   2) careers of masters and students

IV. Conclusion

I. Introduction

 Although it was the capital of Capetian dynasty, Paris was not prominent in the field of education in contrast to Chartres, Loan and Bologna in 11^th century. However, since 12th century Paris grew steadily as an academic city. Of course, it coincided with the development of feudal monarchy in France. Under the reign of king Louis VII(1137-80) and Philip Augustus(1180-1223), the position of Paris as capital had been consolidated, and under the reign of king Philip Augustus its socioeconomic function reinforced. In addition, the educational policy of the Capetian dynasty, one studium generale, served to increase the prominence of Paris as an academic center for liberal arts and theology. 

It is true that until now the scholarship on the rise of Paris as an educational center has been generally done in the political and institutional views. The grow of Paris derived from the facts that King Louis VII supported politically Paris in becoming the capital of administration and the Papacy gave the schools at Paris several rights. Of course, these elements were related to the promotion of Paris as an intellectual center. The problem of the growth of Paris as an educational center was not irrelevant to that of the origins of the University of Paris in the 12^th and 13th centuries. The classical research of the origins and the development of the University of Paris was done by H. Denifle¹⁾ and summed up by H. Rashdall.²⁾ Rashdall put emphasis on the continuity from the cathedral school of Notre Dame to the university.³⁾

 On the other hand, Ferruolo approaches this topic with a different view from the traditional one that the development of Paris as a center for knowledge had attributed to the status of capital, the political and economic support of Capetian dynasty, and the grant of the rights by the Papacy. Ferruolo points out that moralists like St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Jacques de Vitry also contributed to the birth of the University of Paris by increasing the ethical consciousness of teachers and students with respect to education.⁴⁾. 

It seems that the debate over the rise of Paris as a higher educational center is closely tied to the formation or the origins of the University of Paris. Considering such scholarship, this paper aims to know how Paris rose as an academic center, focusing upon the intellectual infrastructures and networks of Paris in 12th and early 13th centuries. I limited the period like this, because Paris had steadily the prominence of education over the rival cities in the 12^th century and the nations, the guild of masters and important networks also, were given birth to in the early 13^th century.

 Accordingly, I focus on two points. First, it is my purpose to know how the intellectual infrastructures of Paris were expanded. In particularly, I would like to reveal what role the distinguished scholars like Peter Abelard, Hugh of St. Victor and Adam Petit du Pont did in promoting the academic status of Paris. In addition, it is another aim for me to catch up the relationship between these scholars and the spread of intellectual stage into the Left Bank of the Seine. Second, this paper tries to look at the function of the nations regarding intellectual network and the diverse careers of the masters and students at Paris in the late 12th century and in the early 13th century. I think that this analysis will show how and what degree intellectual and human networks of Paris worked. To answer the problems, I have used materials or writings mostly written by the masters or students like Peter Ablelard, Bernard of Clairvaux, John of Salisbury, and Alexander Neckam in Paris in 12^th and 13^th centuries.

II. The Enlargement of Intellectual Infrastructures

1) the increase of distinguished scholars

 It has been said that the driving forces of the promotion of Paris as an educational center were intellectual freedom, easiness in setting up a private school and the support of the Papacy for educational policy in contrast to rival cities like Laon, Chartres in France. Besides we have to take into consideration of the fact that eminent teachers in Europe gathered into Paris. Then, Paris was divided into three regions. First was the Island la Cite, second the Right Bank of the Seine, and finally the Left Bank of the Seine. La Cite represented monarch, right bank commerce and left bank schools.⁶⁾ The geographical boundary of Paris was extended into Petit Pont, Church St. Julien and Clos Mauvoisin, and the grape farm of Garland family on southwest. And Paris was expanded to St German street on west, to St Victor street on east, to even Mont St. Geneviève street on south. As this geographical expansion indicates, the walled area of Paris increased to 275 hectares and the population of Paris also grew to at least 25,000-30,000 or at largest 60,000 in early 13th century.⁷⁾ On the other hand, most of these areas belonged to the Left Bank of the Seine and it was related to the rise of the region as an academic center. 

 With respect to the rise of the Left Bank of the Seine, we have to consider other aspects. The chancellor of Notre Dame had the monopoly over education in its diocese. However, some areas in the Left Bank of the Seine were free from the jurisdiction, and a few religious institutions like monastery located there enjoyed the right itself to set up a school. For example, the monastery of the regular cannons of Mont. St. Geneviève ran an independent school and its dormitory. It was thus possible for Peter Abelard to establish a private school against this background and to teach students there.

 We can also discern through the witnesses of the contemporaries that Paris had many advantages in instruction. The case of John of Salisbury is a good one. Born in England, he studied under the contemporary distinguished scholars in France for almost 12 years(1136-48). He learnt diverse knowledge from the great teachers like Peter Abelard, Robert of Melun, William of Conches and Thierry of Chartres.⁸⁾ Furthermore John of Salisbury mentioned his teachers as follows. Thierry of Chartres was a good master of liberal arts, William Conches the most grammarian since Bernard of Chartres and Peter Abelard the best philosopher of Aristotle at that time.⁹⁾ Most of them were involved in teaching actively in or around Paris. Put it another, Paris became a large intellectual space attractive to many students and scholars. Of course, Paris was not the case from the beginning. The cathedral school of Notre Dame played a role as a public one such as other cathedral schools. It was William of Champeaux, a philosopher, who fostered the reputation of the cathedral school of Notre Dame.

 The scholars who came to Paris from France and Europe gave her intellectual vitality. Their origins were diverse and their fields were mostly liberal arts and theology.  Not a few of them were from other countries like Normandy, Picardy, Flandres, Spain, Italy, and England. It was not accident that since early 12th century the position of Paris in the field of education was prominent and it became the first city of teachers.¹⁰⁾ Peter Lombard, a great theologian from Italy, Hugh of St. Victor, a commentator and an educator from Germany, Robert Melun, a grammarian, and Adam du Petit Pont, a philosopher, from England came to the city.

 On the other hand, moralists, who were critical to the approach and way of Peter Abelard whose methods were applied into theology, had also considerable importance on the strength of the status of Paris as an academic city. The teachers of the school of St. Victor show well this. The school founded by William Champeaux in 1108 was famous for speculative mysticism and the commentary of the Bible. Hugh of St. Victor contributed greatly to the increase of the reputation of the school of St. Victor since William Champeaux. Although he was a priest, Hugh put emphasis on not only the study of the Bible and but also the necessity of secular knowledge, classical learning. By making new curriculum upon seven liberal arts, Hugh laid important foundations for the curriculum of the university in the future. He divided largely arts or sciences into three, theoretical, practical and logical philosophy. But what he intended in classification of knowledge was the integration of it. He also believed that the aim of education lied in the integration of human nature.¹¹⁾ In addition, applying dialectical method to mystical theology, Richard of St. Victor from Scotland helped to enlarge the academic insight of the school. This school was critical to intellectual attitudes of Peter Abelard and modified them.¹²⁾ However, the school of St. Victor was always not keeping negative position toward the dialectics and theological views of Abelard. Even Hugh accepted his theory in part. Rather such flexibility of the school of St. Victor to knowledge fostered its academic ability. Thanks to the great masters, the fame of the school of St. Victor, monastery one, rose in 12^th century. The private school like that of Mont. St. Geneviève and the traditional monastic school like St. Victor were coexistent with the cathedral school at Paris. Thus, the coexistence of diverse schools at Paris was one of driving forces for it to become a center for liberal arts and theology.

On the other hand, we can see the academic dynamics of Paris and the problems caused by freedom through the sermons and critics done by moralists in 12th century. Bernard of Clairvaux, a great monk and an ecclesiastical leader also, belonged to this category. He gave young people a sermon in which he compared Paris to a new Babylon and advised them to leave off it and to return to a monastic life.¹³⁾ Raoul Ardent, Simon of Tournai, Alexander Neckham, Peter the Chanter(Cantor), Stephen Langton and Jacques de Vitry had also a similar view like this. Of course the moralists not only put emphasis on the necessity of the education of the clergy, but also the reform of the church. Thus they criticized the idleness of students and the abuse of the freedom given by the city.¹⁴⁾ It is interesting to see the academic vitality of Paris then through the sermons or writings written by them.

  Through the formation of some schools we could also find out that Paris grew as a knowledge city representative of France and Europe as well and how its intellectual network worked. First of all, the school of Abelrard was formed under the influence of Peter Abelard, who was now a great master in dialectic and theology. In addition, the school of Alberic was also made by the followers of Albert, Meludinensis by those of Robert of Melun, Montani by those of teachers and masters at Mont St. Genevive, Heliste by those of Peter Helias, Porretani by those of Gilbert of Poitiers, Parvipontani those of Adam Petit Pont. Interestingly the names of the schools mostly derived not from the name of any city or any school but that of eminent masters.¹⁵⁾ Although there was limit in intellectual discourse and academic solidarity between their members in a modern sense, they exercised considerable influence in the intellectual world. That is to say, the intellectual networks of Paris worked based upon the distinguished scholars or schools in the 12^th century.

2) the expansion of intellectual space

  Prais had physical advantages over rival cities like Chartres and Laon. Under the reign of Philip Augustus large urbanization of Paris, in particularly in the Right Bank, began. The size of its walled town was more four times than that of Chartres about 1215, so that it could accommodate more students and teachers there. Commercial facilities including Champeaux market, food one, were developed on the Right Bank of the Seine.¹⁶⁾ Such as economic strength of Paris appears in the fact that Paris had about 14% of royal income in 1202-3¹⁷⁾. This development could supply students and its citizens enough food.

Before 12th century, the cathedral school of Paris, Notre Dame, like Chartres and Laon played an important role with respect to instruction. In the early 12th century the cathedral school of Notre Dame was an essential one at Paris. Then, since the time the fever of education and the increase of the number of well educated teachers required more schools, so that the authority to set up a school by the chancellor of Notre Dame was weaker than in the past. On the other hand, the intellectual refutation and the charisma of prominent scholars played an important role in the enlargement of academic space into the Left Bank of the Seine from the Cite.

It was William of Champeaux who had contributed to the fortification of academic refutation of the Notre Dame. After the debate over the universals with Peter Abelard, the fame of William Champeaxu decreased. However, the intellectual reputation of Notre Dame could be kept by a set of good masters including the author of 'Sentences', Peter Lombard, Odo of Paris(1164-68), Peter Comestor, Peter of Poitiers (c.1130-1206), Peter Cantor and Cardinal Stephen Langton. ¹⁸⁾ Later the fame of the faculty of theology of the University of Paris owed much to these excellent scholars or masters. On the other hand, the school of St. Victor founded in 1108 by William Champeaux who retired from the cathedral school was famous for speculative mysticism and the commentary of the Bible. Thus, the school of St. Victor kept the intellectual tradition of monastery at Paris in the early 12^th century.

Peter Abelard also made greatly contribution to the strength of the intellectual fame of Paris. As the best dialectician and distinguished teacher then, Peter Abelard participated in the debate over the universals with his teacher William of Champeaux, and won a victory over him. No doubt, he got the refutation and wealth as well through this struggle. As an intellectual soldier, the refutation of Abelard was spread into France and Europe as a whole. Thanks to his fame, many students from around Europe came to Paris and many schools were established there.¹⁹⁾ In addition, his talent for writing love lyrics, love with his student, Heloise and its fatal end also made him and Paris famous. However, William, the Chancellor of Notre Dame, hindered a new risen star's career in Paris. For the reason, Abelard opened up a school at Melun 50 miles away from Paris, and soon transferred it to Corbeil closer to Paris. Peter Abelard came back to Paris in 1108 after long silence due to his illness. Then, William of Champeaux was teaching at the school of St. Victor, and he tried to remove Abelard from Paris. Abelard set up a new school at Mont St. Genevieve which held the right to establish its own school free from the monopoly of the chancellor of Notre Dame on instruction.²³⁾ The school of Mont. St Genevieve gave Abelard a good place in which he could teach freely. This was an event so meaningful that the essential space of Paris with respect to the education could move into the Left Bank and intellectual area be enlarged even into it. ²⁰⁾

Getting the victory over the debate with William of Champeaux, the status of Peter Abelrard was consolidated as a true 'Philosopher'. In particular, introducing the dialectic method into theology and the commentary of the Bible, his fame was more spread. His method that questioned the intellectual traditions and searched for reasonable basis for truth and his endless desire for knowledge made Paris an attractive city for students. Of course, Ile de la Cite had the problem of the lack of the space in accommodating students and masters, and the Left Bank of the Seine rose as an alternative to solve such problem. 

The freedom for master to set up an independent school in the Left Bank beyond the direct influence of the chancellor of Notre Dame also helped to enlarge the intellectual area of Paris. Thanks to the refutation of scholars who opened up private schools, many students from around Europe gathered in the Left Bank and the Left began to rise as a new center for dialectic and liberal arts. Some active intellectuals and the street names show the enlargement of academic space and the intellectual vitality of the Left Bank. Adam du Petit Pont from England was a good evidence for it. He usually taught students around the bridge Petit Pont which connected the Left Bank and the island la Cite. Finally, he came to have his French pen name of Petit Pont, because he had taught students around the bridge and got the refutation for learning.²¹⁾ Like this, the Left Bank represented a symbolic place of academic freedom in which any good teacher could set up a school and teach students freely. The intellectual space of Paris spread into Garlande street and Fouarre street which had been the grape land of the family of Garlande before. In particular, the Fouarre street(rue du Fouarre, Vicus stramineus) was named after the fact that many students had put their straws to listen to teachers.²²⁾

On the other hand, the rapid growth of Paris caused other problems such as high living expenses, lodging, and bad environment for learning.²³⁾ Nevertheless, Paris became a pleasing place with academic merits and was favored by students and masters.

III. The Birth of the Nations and the Spread of Intellectual Network

1) the birth of the nations

In 11th century, the fame of a school was dependent upon that of its teacher. Teachers systemized the essential rights including the right to teach through the organization of the nations in the early 13th centuries. In other words, while scholars or intellectuals in the 12th century were 'wandering scholars' and maintained unstable life,²⁴⁾ masters acquired several rights for teaching in early 13th century. Of course it is certain that wondering scholars functioned as the messenger of knowledge.

On the other hand, teachers at Paris enjoyed the privileges of the clergy(privilegium canonis) and the clerical privilege protected a cleric from bodily harm. Ecclesiastical and secular authorities also recognized them and masters could keep legal privileges(privilegium fori). The status of masters, however, was still not stable. Thus, the masters at Paris organized a guild for professorship independently in order to consolidate their rights and interests legally. The nations of the University of Paris were composed of masters and students from around Europe as a whole, and they laid essential foundations for human and intellectual networks.

While the University of Bologna had the characteristic of student nation, the University of Paris had that of master one. The fact that if any student at Paris did not choose his teacher, he could not keep his status as student shows well this. On the other hand, there were professors who still had the status of student. Some of the faculty of the liberal arts were also the students of the higher faculties of theology, law and medicine. So they needed the organization to be able to protect their rights and interests. The nations promulgated the rights to teach, to grant a license to teach(licentia docenti), and rules about the dress of professor, legal status of professor, and funeral, and were recognized as a legal corporation. It means that the faculty came to get important basis for the permanent institution of university.

These nations became the essential part of the University of Paris and also functioned as the messenger for the spread of knowledge into Europe. As an essential element of the university, the nations transmitted new knowledge and theory into other cities or areas as well. The nations of the University of Paris were composed of 4 ones, French, Picardy, English-Germany and Normandy one. ²⁵⁾ As the composition of the nations indicates, the University had an international one whose teachers were originated from many places around Europe. It is characteristic that the nations of the University of Paris were formed basically as professor guild. In other words, each professor of the University became a member of nation upon his origin and language. Each nation had its own rules, emblem, Saint, finance, archives, festivals and congregation day. Although it had 'local' elements in order to face with the difficulties to be caused in a foreign land, the nation did not confine to geographic boundary. English-Germany nation shows this flexibility. In appearance, it seems to us that England and Germany are not related in geographical view. But this reveals that the nations were not rigid organizations, and it exercised considerable influence on stressing the intellectual vitality. First of all, these nations received the rights to select their officers, to grant degrees and licentia docenti, and to teach from the Papacy. They were necessary components to form the university.

At the University of Paris the faculty of liberal arts played an important role regarding the nations. The number of the professors of liberal arts was major and considerable figures of them were also the students of the higher faculties, those of theology, law and medicine, For this reason, the faculty of liberal arts was interested in fostering the status of students. Each nation selected its own rector, proctor and several officials, and their officials generally dealt with juridical problems.

On the other hand, Jacques de Vitry, then a well-known preacher and moralist as well, indicates a critical view of the nations as follows.

Almost all the students at Paris, foreigners and natives, did absolutely nothing except learn or hear- something new. Some studied merely to acquire knowledge, which is curiosity; others to quire fame, which is vanity; others still for the sake of gain, which is cupidity and the vice of simony. Very few studied for their own edification, or that of others. They wrangled and disputed not merely about the various sects or about some discussions; but the differences between the countries also caused dissensions, hatreds and virulent animosities among them and they impudently uttered all kinds of affronts and insults against one another.

They affirmed that the English were drunkards and had tails; the sons of France proud, effeminate and carefully adorned like women. They said that the Germans were furious and obscene at their feasts; the Normans, vain and boastful; the Poitevins, traitors and always adventurers. The Burgundians they considered vulgar and stupid. The Bretons were reputed to be fickle and changeable, and were often reproached for the death of Arthur. The Lombards were called avaricious, vicious and cowardly; the Romans, seditious, turbulent and slanderous; the Sicilians, tyrannical and cruel; the inhabitants of Brabant, men of blood, incendiaries, brigands and ravishers; the Flemish, fickle, prodigal, gluttonous, yielding as butter, and slothful. After such insults from words they often came to blows. ²⁶⁾

 To the eyes of the contemporary moralist like Jacques, teachers and students at Paris were undisciplined and even the object to be instructed. However, through these young peoples we can see the intellectual freedom and vitality at Paris. Although Jaques de Vitry put focus upon the arrogant behavior of the nations, this shows us the fact that Paris was a symbolic space of intellectual freedom for students and scholars. The University of Paris could maintain its academic reputation through the nations, because eminent scholars and good students from around Europe gathered in Paris and joined the nations. So the University might have played a good model for the universities in Northern-Eastern Europe in the future. Accordingly, the nations were to have great influence on the formation of intellectual network based upon the universities in 14th and 15th centuries.

 2) Careers of masters and students

 The number of the students at Paris amounted about 10% in contrast to its total population in the early 13th century. ²⁷⁾ This number means that Paris became a leading city for knowledge and academic activities as well in Europe. The disciples of Peter Abelard reveals the merits of Paris. Seeing them in detail, we can discern the academic position of Paris. It has been known that identified pupils of Abelard were 21 persons and 14 among them had been left writings. ²⁸⁾ For example, Gratian influenced from Peter Abelard wrote <<Decretum>>(Concordance between discordant cannon laws) which has been regarded as a standard textbook for medieval theology. While writing this book, he adopted the critical approach to authorities in order to make a harmony between discordant cannon laws in which his master Abelard had already used in his <<Sic et Non>>.

In particular, masters or students at Paris from England came back to her and became officials. Achard of St. Victor, Adam of Balsham, Adam of Petit Pont, Gerald of Wales, John of Salisbury, Robert of Melun, Robert of Pullen and Stephen Langton belonged to this case. ²⁹⁾ Although born in England, they studied or participated in academic activities in France. It is not accident that some of them had French place names as pen name like Petit Pont, Melun, and Pullen.

Recent research gives us a clue to understanding of the character and its network of schools at Paris in 1179-1215.³⁰⁾ This indicates that the geographic origins of regent teachers at Paris in late 12th century and early 13th century were diverse. ³¹⁾

<Table 1>

Geographic Origins of Regent Masters at Paris in 1179-1215
	Arts	Law	Medicine	Theology	Total
French domain	2	2(2)	1(1)	5(4)	10(7)
Normandy	1	-	-	-	1
Flandre	-	1(1)	-	2(2)	3(3)
Poitou and Blois	2	-	-	3(3)	5(3)
England	5(1)	5(3)	1(1)	5(4)	16(9)
Denmark	-	-	-	1	1
Provence	-	-	-	1	1
Spain	1(1)	-	-	-	1
Italy	-	1(1)	-	3(3)	4(4)
Unidentified	-	1(1)	-	4(3)	5(4)
Total	11(2)	10(8)	2(2)	24(19)	47(31)

   * ( ) means the teachers left the writings.

This diagram shows some interesting things, although it has limitations concerning personal information and their lives. Diverse origins of masters at Paris characterized its international feature. Their origins were not confined to France, but diverse. Not a few of them left Paris, and moved to other cities or their countries to teach students or to serve at the courts. Such mobility of the masters facilitated the transfer of the knowledge and human resources. And the fact that the portion of the faculty of theology was great represents the status of the faculty at the University. It is interesting to see that the ratio of the masters from England was also high. This means that many scholars or students came to Paris for learning and the University of Oxford or Cambridge was not consolidated then.  

Careers of teachers or the graduated at Paris was not limited to academic world. The life of John of Salisbury says this. Studying for a long time in France including Paris, John of Salisbury entered into the court of Theobald and finally was appointed as bishop of Chartres. Considerable people became prelate or the high officers of the Papacy who had taught or learnt at Paris in late 12th century and early 13th century. Robert Fullen was appointed as the archbishop of Rochester in 1138 and Robert Melun the bishop of Hereford in 1133, and Adam du Petit Pont the bishop of St Asaph in Wales in 1175. All these were the mentors of John of Salisbury. In addition, 1/6 cardinals in the Pope Innocent III and 1/2 in the Pope Gregory IX studied or taught at Paris. Thus, Paris University produced not a few of prelate like cardinals and higher officials of the Papacy. The figure 2 shows well this. ³²⁾

<Tale 2>

Subsequent Careers of Regent Masters at Paris, 1179-1215
	Arts	Law	Medicine	Theology	Total
Cardinal	-	-	-	4(4)	4(4)
Archbishop	-	-	-	4(2)	4(2)
Bishop	2	2(2)	-	1	5(2)
Abbot and Prior	2	1(1)	-	2(1)	5(2)
Dean or Chanter	1	2(2)	-	1(1)	4(3)
Archdeacon	-	1	-	-	1
Official	1	2(1)	-	1(1)	4(2)
Chancellor	-	-	-	5(4)	5(4)
Prebendary	1(1)	-	1(1)	1(1)	3(3)
Monk	1(1)	1(1)	-	2(2)	4(4)
Unidentified	3	1(1)	1(1)	3(3)	8(5)
Total	11(2)	10(8)	2(2)	24(19)	47(31)

    * (    ) means masters who left writings

As this figure shows, a large number of theological masters entered into priesthood and particularly they became prelate. This fact witnesses that masters from Paris, a center for theology, were favored by the Papacy or the Church. Not a few of the masters of the faculty of liberal arts and law also came into the ecclesiastical world.

On the other hand, in France and England considerable intellectuals graduated at Paris were appointed as court official or bishop by the kings. In the case of France, the number of the bishops was not many from 1140 to 1180, but increased prominently from 1180 to 1220, and then did considerably. ³³⁾ The number of bishops who had been teacher, that is scholar, grew greatly. For example, 3% among bishops were appointed by the king, under the reign of Louis VII(1137-80), and 20% among them under that of Philip Augustus(1180-1223). Over 40% among those bishops from scholar under the reign of Louis IX(1226-70) were originated from England. It is supposed that considerable intellectuals among them taught at Paris as members of the nations.

New scholarship like scholarticism and ideas were spread through this human network. It is significant to see that these nations laid importantly human foundation for the formation of universities in North-Eastern Europe. The nations laid fertile soil for the birth of intellectual network based upon the universities in 14th and 15th centuries.

IV. Conclusion

Since 12th century, Paris had intellectual prominence over the rival cities like Chartres and Laon, rising as an educational city around the Europe. This development of Paris attributed to the benefits such as the capital, the political support of Capetian dynasty and the Papacy. However, as we have already seen, the freedom to set up a school and active debate over intellectual issues brought many eminent scholars to Paris. Such great theologians and philosophers as Peter Abelard, Hugh of St. Victor, Aadm du Petit Pong came to Paris for learning, and Paris rose as an intellectual center for theology and liberal arts in 12^th century. Thanks to their intellectual fame and easiness to open up a school, the academic space of Paris was also expanded into the Left Bank of the Seine.

Based upon of the enlargement of the intellectual foundations, the corporation of masters was given birth to in the early 13^th century. This means that the schools in the 12^th century ran upon the fame or personal ability of the master, but now masters got more well-ordered organization for the protection of their rights. The nations of the University of Paris belong to this case. Composed of 4 nations of French, Picardy, English-German and Normady one upon the origins and common language, the nations as the guild of masters show its international character. In particular, masters or students at Paris had prominent careers in the ecclesiastical world, not a few of them became prelate. The nations also served as messenger of the advanced knowledge at Paris to other areas or their countries. In addition, they made a great contribution to the formation of the intellectual networks of the universities in Europe in 14^th and 15^th centuries 14-15. In short, while the intellectual networks at Paris worked on the distinguished scholars or schools in 12th century, they did more organized on the nations in early 13th century than before century.

1) H. Denifle, Die Entstehung der Universitäten des Mittelaters bis 1400, Berlin, 1885.

2) H. Rashdall, The Medieval Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, F. M. Powcicke and A. B. Emden ed., (Oxford, 1936), 3 vols.

3) Ibid, vol. 1., p.275; J. Bowen, A History of Western Education, vol. II (London, 2003), p.105.

4) Ferruolo, The Origins of the University (Stanford Univ. Press, 1985), p. 312. 

5) On the rules of Robert Courson see Ferruolo, Ibid, p. 301-309. 

6) J. Baldwin, Masters and Princes and Merchants, vol. 1 (Princeton Univ. Press, 1970), p. 14.

7) R. W. Southern, "Schools: Paris and Chartres", p.119. It is true that demographers apply different ways to account the population per hectare, and it causes the difference of the size of the population.

8) John of Salisbury, Metalogicon, II, 10.

9) Metalogicon, I, v.

10) Rashdall, Ibid, Vol. I. p. 288.

11) The Origins of the University, pp. 32-34.

12) Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, I, 2, 22. Hugh had a critical view to Abelard's one that God could not modify his act without proving the intellect or immortality of God.

13) Bernard of Clairvaux, Ad Clericos de Conversonoe, XXI, 37. 

14) Ferruolo, Ibid, pp. 216-18.

15) R. W. Southern, "the School of Paris and School of Chartres", in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, p. 114.

16) On the urbanization of the Right Bank of the Seine see J. Bossard, Nouvelle Histoire de Paris : Du la Fin du siège de 885-886 à la mort de Phillipe Auguste, Paris, 1976, pp. 315-319.

17) Ibid., p. 380.

18) O. Petersen, The First Universities : Studium generale and the origins of university education in Europe, tr. R. North (Cambridge Univ. Press,1997), p. 130.

19) Peter Abelard, Historia Calamitatum, I, ii. ed. J. Monfrin, Paris, 1962.

20) Neckham, who studied at Paris in 12^th century, tells us that new schools established at the Left Bank of the Seine, the Bank rose as an center for learning comparable to the school of Notre Dame. Urban T. Homes Jr., Daily Living in the Twelfth Century : Based on the Observations of Alexander Neckham in London and Paris (Wisconsin Univ. Press, 1964), pp. 68-70.

21) John of Salisbury mentions that Adam Petit Pont had a man of shrewd intellect and comprehensive knowledge. Metalogicon, II, 10. 

22) This street became more famous later by Dante. Dante describes it as the street of truth in which Siger of Brabant taught. Dante, Paradiso, X, 139-140.

23) Owing to high rental fees, even teachers rented the second floor of the whore building for classroom. Jacques de Vitry, Historia Occidentalis cap. 7, ed. Hinnebusch, p. 91.

24) The title of Waddel's book shows well this point. H. Waddel, The Wandering Scholars (Boston, 1927).

25) On the nations of the universities see P. Kibre, The Nations in the Mediaeval Universities (New York, 1948).

26) Jacobus de Vitriaco: Hist. occid. Bk.II, Ch.VII. Latin., trans in University of Pennsylvania. Dept. of History: Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European history, University of Pennsylvania Press [1897?-1907?].Vol II:3, pp. 19-20. cit. in N. Schachner, The Mediaeval Universities (New York, 1962), p. 78.

27) Demographers suggest that the population of Paris was from 30 thousands to 50, and the population of the students was about 10%, from 3 thousands to 5. Considering the fact that the population of many cities except international ones was only several thousands, the number of the student at Paris is very high.

28) D. Luscombe, The School of Peter Abelard :The Influence of Abelard's Thought in the Early Scholastic Period (Cambridge, 1969), p. 14.

29) On Peter Lombard, Robert Melun and Richard St. Victor see D. Luscombe, Ibid, pp. 261-280, 281-298, 299-307.

30) See J. W. Baldwin, 'Masters at Paris from 1179 to 1215', in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, ed. R. L. Benson and G, Constables (Harvard Univ. Press, 1982), pp. 138-172. 

31) Ibid, op. cit. p. 149.

32) John W. Baldwin, op. cit, p.152.

33) P. Moraw, "Careers of graduates", in A History of the University in the Europe, p. 249.

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